Children who face away from their parents while being pushed in buggies are more likely to be emotionally isolated and stressed, a study by researchers at a Scottish university revealed yesterday.

Children who face away from their parents while being pushed in buggies are more likely to be emotionally isolated and stressed, a study by researchers at a Scottish university revealed yesterday.

The first study on the psychological effects of buggies on babies, published by scientists at Dundee University, has prompted experts to urge parents to choose sociable, face-to-face buggies.

Dr Suzanne Zeedyk, a developmental psychologist, carried out two key pieces of research - an observational study of 2722 parent-infant pairs across the UK and a smaller experiment involving 20 babies in Dundee.

Both found those facing away from their parent - the vast majority - were significantly less likely to talk, laugh and interact with their mothers and fathers.

Dr Zeedyk described the results of her research as a "complete surprise".

During the Dundee experiment, the children, who ranged in age from six to 18 months, were pushed for half-a-mile facing forwards, and half-a-mile facing the person pushing the buggy.

Only one of the 20 babies laughed during the away-facing journey - while 50% giggled when they faced their parents.

Those facing away were also more likely to have higher heart rates, and were half as likely to fall asleep - a sign that the child is relaxed.

Dr Zeedyk said this combination of less interaction and stress was likely to leave babies "emotionally impoverished", and could make them more anxious as adults.

The study revealed that 62% of all children travelled in away-facing buggies, while the rate jumped to 86% for infants aged between one and two.

It also showed 25% of parents who used more expensive, face-to-face buggies regularly talked to their child, a figure more than twice the rate in those who had away-facing buggies.

Fiona Lewis, of the National Literacy Trust, which commissioned the research, said many parents were unknowingly forcing their children to face the outside world too early.

The trust is running a campaign called Talk to Your Baby, which encourages parents to help their children acquire language skills as early as possible.

"This new research shows that all children travelling in buggies should really be facing inwards, and we'd urge parents to make that choice," Ms Lewis said.

"Parents with a two-way facing buggy should use the sociable face-to-face option as standard. Many parents feel facing their child outwards, so they can see the world, is the best.

"However, babies and toddlers look to their parents to filter and explain the world to them, for example whether something should be laughed at, or perhaps whether it is something they should be scared of. They need that sort of interaction and reassurance constantly.

"Outward facing children are only spoken to half as much, which on a two or three-hour shopping spree can be a significant amount of interaction."

She added: "The study shows this could damage the future development of the child, but we also think it reveals a real missed opportunity for both the child and the parent.

"Indeed, the research also showed parents enjoyed having their child facing inwards far more than outwards. We know that talking to your baby is a good thing."

Ms Lewis also called on manufacturers to offer cheaper front-facing buggies.

She said: "The cheapest front-facing models are around £200, compared to just £20 for the cheapest outward-facing models. We believe buggies should face inwards as standard."

Dr Zeedyk said: "If babies spend significant amounts of time in a baby buggy that undermines their ability to communicate easily with their parent at an age when the brain is developing more than it will ever again in life, then this has to impact negatively on their development.

"Our data suggests that for many babies, life in a buggy is emotionally impoverished and possibly stressful. Our experimental study showed that by simply turning the buggy around, parents' rate of talking to their baby doubled.

"Parents deserve to be able to make informed choices as to how to best promote their children's emotional, physical and neurological development. Neuroscience has helped us to learn how important social interaction during the early years is for children's brain development."

Parents disagree

• Claire Kennedy, from Scotstoun, Glasgow, has a six-week-old baby, Remy: "This buggy is good because it lets them see the world and you're still chatting to them. My daughter Anni is two and sits at the front. There's nothing wrong with having them facing outwards they'd get bored looking at my face all day."

• Lisa Logan, from Hyndland, Glasgow, has a two-year-old son, Nathan: "It's better the child is facing out and you can tell them about what they see. Communication is the key and they get a better understanding of the world if you tell it to them through their eyes."

• Christina Paterson, from Stirling, was with her 16-month-old niece Rowan Cox: "Rowan is a keen shopper and loves to see what is going on around her. To make her face me all the time would limit her understanding of things around her. She's always laughing and pointing things out."

• 19-month-old twin daughters Lucy and Sophie: "My girls would hate to look at me all day. They need to face out and be part of what's going on. There aren't a lot of buggies for twins that face in but even if there were I wouldn't get one."

A pram for all seasons

• Prams been used since the Victorian era. However, the collapsible buggy as we know it was invented by Owen Maclaren in 1965, after he watched his daughter struggle with a clumsy conventional pushchair.

• Previously, Mr Maclaren had invented the undercarriage for the Spitfire. The pram's iconic blue and white stripes and aluminium frame, which he designed, are still popular today - and the company now exports to more than 60 countries worldwide.

• In the 21st century, buggies, or strollers as they are known as in the US, are big business, and are often viewed by parents as designer accessories. Companies such as Peg Perego, Baby Jogger, Bugaboo and phil&teds produce buggies suitable for all surfaces including "off-road" terrains.

• The price of buggies varies widely, from around £20 for a no-frills version to upwards of £800 for a leather-clad model.

• Due to the increase in multiple births caused partly by IVF treatment, most buggy companies now offer models suitable for twins and triplets. Buggies for two or three children of different ages are also available.