Humza Yousaf has called on Chancellor Jeremy Hunt to provide more "support for people who are struggling" when he sets out his budget next week.
The First Minister also called for a hike to Universal Credit and an end to the two-child benefit cap.
However, his demands came as his own government's tax and spending plans were panned by anti-poverty groups.
READ MORE: MSPs back Scottish Government budget
Professor Stephen Sinclair, Chair of the Scottish Government's own Poverty and Inequality Commission, warned that some of Shona Robison's spending decisions, backed by MSPs yesterday, would "move Scotland further from where we need to be to reduce poverty."
He added: "The Scottish Government has rightly prioritised Scotland’s social security safety net, but funding cuts to services that support people entering and progressing at work, alongside significant reductions to Scotland’s affordable housing programme, are just two areas where progress on reducing poverty is at risk.
“We need to see the Scottish Government, and other parties, work together to put in place the policies needed to free people from poverty and commit resources to match this ambition.”
Ms Robinson set out the initial Scottish Budget plans last December, announcing a raft of tax hikes and spending cuts to tackle a £1.5bn black hole.
A new income tax band is being created which will see those on a salary between £75,000 and £125,140 paying 45%, while a 1% increase to the highest rate of tax – for those earning more than £125,140 – will take it to 48p in the pound.
Jamie Livingstone, Head of Oxfam Scotland, said any money gained through the changes tax would be “wasted” because of the controversial council tax freeze announced by Mr Yousaf last year.
He said: “This deeply disappointing and disjointed Budget risks bringing to a screeching halt – and if anything, throwing into reverse – action to tackle poverty.
READ MORE: Ewing blasts SNP as he loses appeal against suspension
Mr Yousaf is due to visit a community library in Edinburgh today, where the Scottish Government says he will "highlight his government’s commitment to tackling child poverty and helping families struggling with the cost of living."
Speaking ahead of the visit, the First Minister said: "Tackling child poverty is a central mission for the Scottish Government. That’s why in the year ahead we will invest a record £6.3 billion in social security benefits, including the game-changing Scottish Child Payment and six other benefits only available in Scotland.
"This is a full £1.1 billion more than we receive for social security."
He said the Spring Budget, due to be set out on 6 March, was an "opportunity for the Chancellor to take action to provide further targeted support for people who are struggling".
He added: "We will continue to do everything within the scope of our powers and budget in order to meet our statutory child poverty targets and will be relentless in that focus, but it is only with the full economic and fiscal powers of an independent nation that Ministers can use all levers other governments have to tackle inequalities.”
READ MORE: Scottish Child Payment reaches over 327,000 children
During yesterday's Holyrood debate, the Scottish Conservative shadow finance secretary Liz Smith said the Scottish Government's budget would do “nothing to stimulate jobs, investment, economic growth or encourage aspiration.”
She said SNP “mismanagement” meant that “Scots will face savage cuts while paying more.”
Labour’s Michael Marra described it as “a budget based on the economically and fiscally illiterate assumption that income tax can be used to plug the hole left by the SNP's failure to grow the economy.”
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